An interventional study of 1-Minute Exercise Snacks in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, sponsored by Capital University of Physical Education and Sports, China. Completed at 1 site in China. Open to participants aged 35 Years to 75 Years. Per ClinicalTrials.gov, last updated 2026-11-10.
Sponsored by Capital University of Physical Education and Sports, China · Not applicable, Interventional, and Treatment
This randomized crossover trial investigated whether brief, one-minute bouts of exercise, known as "exercise snacks," could improve daytime blood glucose levels in adults with type 2 diabetes who were not receiving insulin treatment. The study also examined whether increasing the number of daily exercise snacks provided additional benefits for blood glucose control.
Participants were randomly assigned to different sequences of four experimental conditions: no prescribed exercise snacks (CON), four exercise snacks per day (ES4), six exercise snacks per day (ES6), and eight exercise snacks per day (ES8). Each condition lasted two consecutive days, with a washout period of at least 72 hours between conditions. Each exercise snack consisted of one minute of vigorous body-weight movements. Three exercise sessions were scheduled after meals, while additional sessions were performed at other times of the day.
Participants followed standardized meal plans and wore continuous glucose monitoring devices to measure glucose levels throughout the study. The primary outcome was mean daytime sensor glucose from 6:00 AM to midnight. Additional assessments included glucose variability, post-meal glucose responses, physical activity, exercise adherence, participant acceptability, and safety.
The researchers hypothesized that at least one exercise snack condition would reduce daytime glucose compared with the control condition, while additional daily exercise sessions might not necessarily produce greater glucose-lowering benefits. The findings were intended to inform practical, time-efficient exercise recommendations for adults with type 2 diabetes.
This study was designed as a single-center, randomized, four-condition, four-period crossover trial using a Williams balanced design to evaluate the effects of different daily frequencies of one-minute exercise snacks on glucose regulation in adults with type 2 diabetes who were not treated with insulin.
Study Design and Procedures The study employed four experimental conditions: CON (no prescribed exercise snacks), ES4 (four exercise snacks per day), ES6 (six exercise snacks per day), and ES8 (eight exercise snacks per day). Participants were randomly allocated to one of four Williams balanced intervention sequences, ensuring that each condition appeared once in each experimental period and balancing potential first-order carryover effects.
Before randomization, participants underwent baseline clinical assessments, habitual physical activity monitoring, dietary assessment, and supervised exercise familiarization. Each experimental condition was implemented for two consecutive days, separated by washout periods of at least 72 hours. The four experimental periods were scheduled to be completed over approximately four weeks.
Exercise Snack Interventions Each exercise snack consisted of four consecutive 15-second body-weight exercises, totaling one minute of vigorous physical activity. The exercise combinations included movements such as jumping jacks, squats, high knees, lunges, and modified burpees. Exercise intensity was targeted at 7-9 on the Borg CR-10 rating of perceived exertion scale.
In all three exercise conditions, three exercise snacks were performed approximately 45 minutes after the beginning of breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Additional sessions were distributed across predefined non-postprandial time windows. The ES4 condition included one additional non-postprandial session, ES6 included three, and ES8 included five. Non-postprandial exercise windows were balanced across participants using a Latin-square allocation scheme.
Participants performed the prescribed exercises independently in their usual living or working environments. Exercise adherence and intensity were monitored through electronic exercise logs, Polar H10 heart-rate recordings, mobile reminders, and daily remote follow-up.
Dietary Standardization and Glucose Monitoring During all experimental conditions, participants consumed standardized individualized meals with consistent energy and macronutrient composition. Antidiabetic medication regimens were maintained without changes, and participants were instructed to avoid additional structured exercise.
Glucose concentrations were monitored using a blinded continuous glucose monitoring system (FreeStyle Libre Pro), which recorded interstitial glucose at 15-minute intervals. Participants could not access real-time glucose readings during monitoring.
Outcome Assessment The primary outcome was mean daytime sensor glucose measured from 06:00 to 24:00, averaged across the two observation days of each experimental condition.
Secondary assessments included 24-hour and nighttime mean glucose, non-postprandial daytime glucose, glucose variability, time in predefined glucose ranges, postprandial glucose responses, exercise adherence and intensity, acceptability, habitual physical activity, and adverse events.
Statistical Analysis Linear mixed-effects models were specified to compare glucose outcomes across experimental conditions, accounting for treatment condition, experimental period, randomized sequence, and repeated measurements within participants.
The primary hypothesis was that at least one exercise snack condition would reduce mean daytime glucose compared with the control condition. Additional exploratory analyses examined the shape of the exercise frequency-response relationship and glucose responses following individual exercise snacks performed during postprandial and non-postprandial periods.
The study was intended to provide evidence regarding the optimal daily frequency and practical implementation of brief exercise interventions for improving glucose management in adults with type 2 diabetes.
10,371 studies on the registry are indexed under Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2; 1,406 are open to participants now.
This study's enrollment of 40 is below the median of 80 across 8,350 interventional studies indexed under Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2.
Browse Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 studies →Capital University of Physical Education and Sports, China is the lead sponsor of 9 studies on the registry; 3 are open to participants now.
Counted across the registry records on this site, refreshed daily.
Go through the criteria one by one — yes, no or not sure — and take the list to your doctor or the study team. Kept in this browser only.
Exclusion Criteria:
Underlined terms in the criteria open these too. Explained by clinicaltrials.gg, not part of the registry record. The study team decides who can take part.
A blood test of average blood sugar over the past two to three months, given as a percentage or in mmol/mol. 6.5% (48 mmol/mol) or more is the usual threshold for diabetes, normally confirmed by a second test.
Before you join, the study team explains what taking part involves — its purpose, what happens, the risks and possible benefits — and answers your questions, so you can decide freely. Consent is usually recorded on a form (the informed consent form, ICF) signed by you or, where the law allows, by someone legally authorised to decide for you.
You can keep asking questions during the study, you are told of new information that matters, and you can choose to leave at any time.
A recording of the heart’s electrical activity, taken with stickers on the chest, arms and legs. It takes a few minutes and does not hurt.
The New York Heart Association’s four classes of how much heart failure limits physical activity.
Studies set their own limit — many outside heart failure leave out class III–IV, while heart failure studies may ask for a particular class. Check the class this study names.
A reason a treatment, test or procedure should not be given to a particular person, such as an allergy, another illness or a medicine they take.
GFR (glomerular filtration rate) is how much blood the kidneys filter each minute. It is usually estimated from a blood test — eGFR, by formulas such as CKD-EPI or MDRD — and some studies ask for it to be measured directly instead. Usually given in mL/min/1.73 m².
Check the method, the units and the minimum the study states. A value of 90 or above is in the normal-or-high range, but kidney damage can show in other tests too.
Two enzymes measured in a routine blood test of the liver. Higher levels can mean the liver is under strain or damaged. SGPT and SGOT are older names for ALT and AST.
Criteria usually give a limit as a multiple of the upper limit of normal (ULN), often higher when cancer has spread to the liver.
The top of the normal range for a blood test, as set by the laboratory that runs it. Each lab prints its own range next to your result.
“≤ 2.5 × ULN” means the result can be up to two and a half times that top value.
HbA1c
A blood test of average blood sugar over the past two to three months, given as a percentage or in mmol/mol. 6.5% (48 mmol/mol) or more is the usual threshold for diabetes, normally confirmed by a second test.
Explained by clinicaltrials.gg, not part of the registry record. The study team decides who can take part.
Informed consent
Before you join, the study team explains what taking part involves — its purpose, what happens, the risks and possible benefits — and answers your questions, so you can decide freely. Consent is usually recorded on a form (the informed consent form, ICF) signed by you or, where the law allows, by someone legally authorised to decide for you.
You can keep asking questions during the study, you are told of new information that matters, and you can choose to leave at any time.
Explained by clinicaltrials.gg, not part of the registry record. The study team decides who can take part.
ECG (electrocardiogram)
A recording of the heart’s electrical activity, taken with stickers on the chest, arms and legs. It takes a few minutes and does not hurt.
Explained by clinicaltrials.gg, not part of the registry record. The study team decides who can take part.
NYHA class (heart failure)
The New York Heart Association’s four classes of how much heart failure limits physical activity.
Studies set their own limit — many outside heart failure leave out class III–IV, while heart failure studies may ask for a particular class. Check the class this study names.
Explained by clinicaltrials.gg, not part of the registry record. The study team decides who can take part.
Contraindication
A reason a treatment, test or procedure should not be given to a particular person, such as an allergy, another illness or a medicine they take.
Explained by clinicaltrials.gg, not part of the registry record. The study team decides who can take part.
GFR and eGFR (kidney filtering)
GFR (glomerular filtration rate) is how much blood the kidneys filter each minute. It is usually estimated from a blood test — eGFR, by formulas such as CKD-EPI or MDRD — and some studies ask for it to be measured directly instead. Usually given in mL/min/1.73 m².
Check the method, the units and the minimum the study states. A value of 90 or above is in the normal-or-high range, but kidney damage can show in other tests too.
Explained by clinicaltrials.gg, not part of the registry record. The study team decides who can take part.
ALT and AST (liver enzymes)
Two enzymes measured in a routine blood test of the liver. Higher levels can mean the liver is under strain or damaged. SGPT and SGOT are older names for ALT and AST.
Criteria usually give a limit as a multiple of the upper limit of normal (ULN), often higher when cancer has spread to the liver.
Explained by clinicaltrials.gg, not part of the registry record. The study team decides who can take part.
ULN (upper limit of normal)
The top of the normal range for a blood test, as set by the laboratory that runs it. Each lab prints its own range next to your result.
“≤ 2.5 × ULN” means the result can be up to two and a half times that top value.
Explained by clinicaltrials.gg, not part of the registry record. The study team decides who can take part.
Participants received four experimental conditions in the following order: CON (no prescribed exercise snacks), ES4 (four 1-minute exercise snacks per day), ES8 (eight 1-minute exercise snacks per day), and ES6 (six 1-minute exercise snacks per day). Each condition lasted two consecutive days, with washout periods of at least 72 hours between conditions.
Behavioral: 1-Minute Exercise Snacks
Participants received four experimental conditions in the following order: ES4 (four 1-minute exercise snacks per day), ES6 (six 1-minute exercise snacks per day), CON (no prescribed exercise snacks), and ES8 (eight 1-minute exercise snacks per day). Each condition lasted two consecutive days, with washout periods of at least 72 hours between conditions.
Behavioral: 1-Minute Exercise Snacks
Participants received four experimental conditions in the following order: ES6 (six 1-minute exercise snacks per day), ES8 (eight 1-minute exercise snacks per day), ES4 (four 1-minute exercise snacks per day), and CON (no prescribed exercise snacks). Each condition lasted two consecutive days, with washout periods of at least 72 hours between conditions.
Behavioral: 1-Minute Exercise Snacks
Participants received four experimental conditions in the following order: ES8 (eight 1-minute exercise snacks per day), CON (no prescribed exercise snacks), ES6 (six 1-minute exercise snacks per day), and ES4 (four 1-minute exercise snacks per day). Each condition lasted two consecutive days, with washout periods of at least 72 hours between conditions.
Behavioral: 1-Minute Exercise Snacks
Participants performed vigorous 1-minute exercise snacks consisting of four consecutive 15-second body-weight movements without rest. Exercises included jumping jacks, squats, high knees, lunges, and modified burpees. Individualized exercise combinations were determined during familiarization and remained unchanged across conditions. Target intensity was 7-9 on the Borg CR-10 scale. Three exercise frequencies were evaluated: ES4 (4 sessions/day: 3 after meals and 1 non-postprandial), ES6 (6 sessions/day: 3 after meals and 3 non-postprandial), and ES8 (8 sessions/day: 3 after meals and 5 non-postprandial). Postprandial exercise was scheduled approximately 45 minutes after meal initiation. Each condition lasted 2 consecutive days, with washout periods of at least 72 hours. Exercise was performed independently, with adherence monitored using heart-rate recordings and electronic logs.
Mean Daytime Sensor Glucose (06:00-24:00)
Mean interstitial glucose concentration (mmol/L) measured using a blinded continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) system (FreeStyle Libre Pro). Daytime glucose was defined as the average sensor glucose concentration recorded between 06:00 and 24:00 on each observation day. The primary outcome was calculated as the mean daytime sensor glucose across the two consecutive observation days within each experimental condition (CON, ES4, ES6, and ES8). Glucose measurements were recorded at 15-minute intervals.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (06:00-24:00 daily), across approximately 4 weeks.
Mean 24-Hour Sensor Glucose
Mean sensor glucose concentration (mmol/L) measured using blinded continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) from 00:00 to 24:00, averaged across the two observation days of each condition.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Mean Nighttime Sensor Glucose
Mean CGM-derived sensor glucose concentration (mmol/L) between 00:00 and 06:00, averaged across the two observation days of each experimental condition.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Mean Non-Postprandial Daytime Sensor Glucose
Mean sensor glucose concentration (mmol/L) during the 12 non-postprandial daytime hours, excluding the three designated 2-hour postprandial windows from 06:00 to 24:00, averaged across two observation days per condition.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Standard Deviation of Sensor Glucose
Standard deviation (SD) of glucose concentrations (mmol/L) derived from CGM readings during each experimental condition, representing absolute glycemic variability.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Coefficient of Variation of Sensor Glucose
Coefficient of variation (CV, %) of CGM-derived glucose, calculated as 100 multiplied by the glucose standard deviation divided by the mean glucose concentration for each condition.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Mean Amplitude of Glycemic Excursions
Mean amplitude of glycemic excursions (MAGE, mmol/L) calculated from CGM recordings according to the prespecified Service method to characterize glucose fluctuations.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Time in Range (3.9-10.0 mmol/L)
Percentage of valid CGM monitoring time during which sensor glucose concentrations were within the target range of 3.9-10.0 mmol/L.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Time in Tight Range (3.9-7.8 mmol/L)
Percentage of valid CGM monitoring time during which sensor glucose concentrations were within the tighter glucose range of 3.9-7.8 mmol/L.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Time Above Range (>10.0 mmol/L)
Percentage of valid CGM monitoring time during which sensor glucose concentrations exceeded 10.0 mmol/L.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Time Below Range (<3.9 mmol/L)
Percentage of valid CGM monitoring time during which sensor glucose concentrations were below 3.9 mmol/L.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Mean Postprandial Sensor Glucose
Mean CGM-derived glucose concentration (mmol/L) during the 0-120-minute period following the first bite of each meal, evaluated for breakfast, lunch, and dinner.
Time frame: 0-120 minutes after breakfast, lunch, and dinner on Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions.
Peak Postprandial Sensor Glucose
Maximum CGM-derived glucose concentration (mmol/L) observed within 120 minutes after the first bite of breakfast, lunch, or dinner.
Time frame: 0-120 minutes after breakfast, lunch, and dinner on Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions.
Postprandial Incremental Glucose Area Under the Curve
Incremental glucose area under the curve (iAUC, mmol/L × min) from 0 to 120 minutes after meal initiation, calculated by the trapezoidal method using the mean of the readings at meal initiation and 15 minutes before the meal as baseline. Areas below baseline were excluded.
Time frame: 0-120 minutes after breakfast, lunch, and dinner on Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions.
Self-Reported Completed Exercise Snacks per Day
Mean daily number of prescribed exercise snacks reported as completed in electronic exercise logs, calculated separately for the ES4, ES6, and ES8 conditions.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of the ES4, ES6, and ES8 conditions, across approximately 4 weeks.
Heart-Rate-Verified Exercise Snacks per Day
Mean daily number of self-reported exercise snacks verified by synchronized Polar H10 heart-rate records, with matching completion times within ±10 minutes and a heart-rate rise consistent with a 1-minute exercise bout.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of the ES4, ES6, and ES8 conditions, across approximately 4 weeks.
Delivered Exercise Snack Dose per Day
Mean daily number of exercise snacks meeting the protocol-defined level-3 verification criteria, requiring heart-rate-confirmed completion and achievement of the prespecified intensity threshold. The count was averaged over the two observation days of each exercise condition.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of the ES4, ES6, and ES8 conditions, across approximately 4 weeks.
Self-Reported Exercise Completion Rate
Percentage of prescribed exercise snack sessions reported as completed in the electronic exercise log, calculated separately for each exercise condition.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of the ES4, ES6, and ES8 conditions, across approximately 4 weeks.
Rating of Perceived Exertion During Exercise Snacks
Perceived exertion recorded after each exercise snack using the Borg CR-10 scale (0-10), with higher scores indicating greater perceived exertion. The prescribed target was 7-9.
Time frame: Each prescribed exercise session on Days 1-2 of the ES4, ES6, and ES8 conditions, across approximately 4 weeks.
Peak Heart Rate During Exercise Snacks
Maximum heart rate (beats per minute) recorded using a Polar H10 chest strap during each exercise snack.
Time frame: Each prescribed exercise session on Days 1-2 of the ES4, ES6, and ES8 conditions, across approximately 4 weeks.
Peak Heart Rate as a Percentage of Age-Predicted Maximum
Peak heart rate expressed as a percentage of age-predicted maximum heart rate, calculated using the Tanaka equation: 208 - 0.7 × age (years).
Time frame: Each prescribed exercise session on Days 1-2 of the ES4, ES6, and ES8 conditions, across approximately 4 weeks.
Exercise Enjoyment Score
Self-reported enjoyment after each exercise snack on a numerical scale from 0 (not enjoyable at all) to 10 (extremely enjoyable). Higher scores indicate greater enjoyment.
Time frame: Each prescribed exercise session on Days 1-2 of the ES4, ES6, and ES8 conditions, across approximately 4 weeks.
Muscle Soreness Score
Self-reported muscle soreness after each exercise snack on a 4-level scale: 0 = none, 1 = mild, 2 = moderate, and 3 = severe.
Time frame: Each prescribed exercise session on Days 1-2 of the ES4, ES6, and ES8 conditions, across approximately 4 weeks.
Interval Between Consecutive Exercise Snacks
Elapsed time in minutes between consecutive completed exercise snack sessions within each exercise condition, derived from recorded completion times.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of the ES4, ES6, and ES8 conditions, across approximately 4 weeks.
Number of Exercise Interval Rule Violations
Number of occasions on which consecutive exercise snack sessions were separated by less than the prescribed minimum interval of 60 minutes.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of the ES4, ES6, and ES8 conditions, across approximately 4 weeks.
Daily Step Count
Mean daily step count measured using a waist-worn ActiGraph wGT3X-BT accelerometer during each experimental condition.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Daily Sedentary Time
Daily sedentary time (minutes per day) measured by accelerometry, using fewer than 100 vertical-axis counts per minute to identify sedentary behavior.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Non-Intervention Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity
Daily minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) measured by accelerometry, excluding activity recorded from 1 minute before to 1 minute after each prescribed exercise snack.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Number of Symptomatic Hypoglycemic Events
Number of symptomatic hypoglycemia episodes confirmed by capillary blood glucose measurements below 3.9 mmol/L. Symptoms included palpitations, sweating, hunger, or dizziness.
Time frame: From baseline assessment through the final adverse-event follow-up after the fourth condition (approximately 5 weeks per participant).
Number of CGM-Detected Hypoglycemic Events Below 3.9 mmol/L
Number of CGM-derived hypoglycemic events defined as sensor glucose below 3.9 mmol/L continuously for at least 15 minutes.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Number of CGM-Detected Level 2 Hypoglycemic Events
Number of CGM-derived level 2 hypoglycemic events defined as sensor glucose below 3.0 mmol/L continuously for at least 15 minutes.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Number of Adverse Events
Number of adverse medical events recorded during the study, regardless of relationship to the intervention, including musculoskeletal injury, cardiovascular symptoms, and other clinical events.
Time frame: From baseline assessment through the final adverse-event follow-up after the fourth condition (approximately 5 weeks per participant).
Number of Serious Adverse Events
Number of serious adverse events recorded during the study, including events resulting in death, life-threatening conditions, hospitalization or prolonged hospitalization, or major disability.
Time frame: From baseline assessment through the final adverse-event follow-up after the fourth condition (approximately 5 weeks per participant).
Relative Support for Candidate Exercise Dose-Response Models
Akaike weights derived from comparisons of seven prespecified dose-response models: linear, log-linear, quadratic, threshold, Emax, unimodal with a peak at six sessions per day, and fully categorical. Weights represent relative model support in the specified candidate set.
Time frame: Days 1-2 of each of the four experimental conditions (approximately 4 weeks in total).
Change in Sensor Glucose 60 Minutes After Individual Exercise Snacks
Change in CGM sensor glucose (mmol/L) from the exercise completion time (0 minutes) to 60 minutes afterward, separately for postprandial and non-postprandial exercise windows. Glucose trajectories from -30 to +120 minutes were examined, with corresponding clock-time readings from the control condition used as a reference.
Time frame: From 30 minutes before to 120 minutes after each exercise snack during Days 1-2 of ES4, ES6, and ES8 conditions.
Plan to share: Yes — De-identified individual participant data underlying the results reported in publications from this trial, including relevant continuous glucose monitoring outcomes, baseline characteristics, and exercise adherence data, may be shared with qualified researchers upon reasonable request, subject to applicable ethical, consent, and data protection requirements. No directly identifying participant information will be shared.
Supporting information: Study protocol, Statistical analysis plan
Time frame: Data will be available following publication of the primary study results and for at least 12 months thereafter.
Access criteria: Qualified researchers may request access to de-identified participant data by contacting the principal investigator at 18101351378@163.com. Requests will be reviewed based on scientific merit, the proposed research purpose, ethical considerations, and compliance with applicable privacy regulations. Data sharing will be subject to approval by the research team and any required data-use agreements.
No publications or documents are linked to this record.
Ran from Sep 2025 to primary completion in Oct 2025, 1 month.
Of 2,066 non-industry interventional studies with no phase under Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2, half reached primary completion within 21 months of starting (the median), counting those still running; a quarter within 10 and three quarters within 40. This study's 1 month is below that.
Counting every sponsor, half of 2,243 studies reached it within 21 months; a quarter within 10 and three quarters within 39.
How these figures are worked out, and which studies are left out of them.
From the registry record's own update history. This site started tracking changes on Sep 25, 2026; for anything earlier, see the record history on ClinicalTrials.gov ↗
This study is completed, as verified in Nov 2026. You cannot join it, but the record below documents what was studied.
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Capital University of Physical Education and Sports, China