An interventional study of Distal External Attentional Focus and Proximal External Attentional Focus in Tennis Motor Skill Learning, sponsored by Guangzhou University. Completed at 4 sites in China. Open to participants aged 9 Years to 12 Years, including healthy volunteers. Per ClinicalTrials.gov, last updated 2026-09-16.
Sponsored by Guangzhou University · Not applicable, Interventional, and Other
This study evaluated how different attentional focus instructions and feedback timing affect tennis motor skill learning in children aged 9 to 12 years. The study used a school-clustered 4 × 2 factorial quasi-experimental design involving four primary schools in Shenzhen, China.
Each participating school implemented one of four attentional focus conditions: distal external focus, proximal external focus, internal focus, or neutral instruction. Within each school, eligible children were assigned to either immediate feedback or delayed summary feedback, resulting in eight experimental conditions. All participants completed the same standardized tennis training program for 12 weeks, with three 90-minute training sessions per week.
The study assessed children's performance in four tennis skills: forehand, backhand, volley, and serve. Skill-performance attainment and technique evaluation were assessed before and after the intervention. Retention and transfer of the learned skills were additionally assessed two weeks after completion of the intervention. The study was designed to determine whether attentional focus, feedback timing, or the interaction between these two factors influences children's acquisition, retention, and transfer of tennis motor skills.
The study used a school-clustered 4 × 2 factorial quasi-experimental design to investigate the effects of attentional focus and feedback timing on children's tennis motor skill learning. The first experimental factor was attentional focus, with four levels: distal external focus, proximal external focus, internal focus, and neutral instruction. The second factor was feedback timing, with two levels: immediate feedback and delayed summary feedback.
The four attentional focus conditions were implemented at the school level. Each participating school was assigned one attentional focus condition according to the study implementation arrangement. Within each school, eligible participants were balanced according to sex, grade, and baseline tennis skill level and were then randomly assigned in a 1:1 ratio to either the immediate-feedback condition or the delayed-feedback condition using a computer-generated random sequence. This procedure resulted in eight experimental conditions.
All groups received the same standardized tennis training program for 12 weeks. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes. The training program included forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. The training content, progression, facilities, equipment, and instructor qualifications were standardized across study sites. The experimental differences between groups were limited to attentional focus instructions and the timing of feedback.
In the distal external-focus condition, children were instructed to focus on outcomes such as the ball's target location and flight trajectory. In the proximal external-focus condition, they focused on the interaction between the racket and the ball. In the internal-focus condition, they focused on body movements, movement technique, and force production. The neutral-instruction condition used conventional instructional language without a specific attentional focus cue. Participants receiving immediate feedback were provided with instructional or technical feedback immediately after each performance, whereas participants receiving delayed summary feedback received feedback after completion of a practice set.
Tennis motor skill learning was evaluated using standardized assessments of forehand, backhand, volley, and serve performance. The study examined skill acquisition after the 12-week intervention and subsequently assessed retention and transfer of the learned skills after a post-intervention interval.
Guangzhou University is the lead sponsor of 3 studies on the registry; 1 is open to participants now.
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Before you join, the study team explains what taking part involves — its purpose, what happens, the risks and possible benefits — and answers your questions, so you can decide freely. Consent is usually recorded on a form (the informed consent form, ICF) signed by you or, where the law allows, by someone legally authorised to decide for you.
You can keep asking questions during the study, you are told of new information that matters, and you can choose to leave at any time.
Explained by clinicaltrials.gg, not part of the registry record. The study team decides who can take part.
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a distal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the target location and flight trajectory of the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided immediately after each performance.
Behavioral: Distal External Attentional Focus · Behavioral: Immediate Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a distal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the target location and flight trajectory of the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided after completion of each practice set rather than immediately after each performance.
Behavioral: Distal External Attentional Focus · Behavioral: Delayed Summary Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a proximal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided immediately after each performance.
Behavioral: Proximal External Attentional Focus · Behavioral: Immediate Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use a proximal external attentional focus by directing attention toward the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball. Instructional and technical feedback consistent with this attentional focus was provided after completion of each practice set.
Behavioral: Proximal External Attentional Focus · Behavioral: Delayed Summary Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use an internal attentional focus by directing attention toward body movements, movement technique, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance. Instructional and technical feedback was provided immediately after each performance.
Behavioral: Internal Attentional Focus · Behavioral: Immediate Feedback
Participants received a standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They were instructed to use an internal attentional focus by directing attention toward body movements, movement technique, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance. Instructional and technical feedback was provided after completion of each practice set.
Behavioral: Internal Attentional Focus · Behavioral: Delayed Summary Feedback
Participants received the same standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They received conventional tennis instruction without a specific external or internal attentional focus cue. Instructional and technical feedback was provided immediately after each performance.
Behavioral: Neutral Instruction · Behavioral: Immediate Feedback
Participants received the same standardized 12-week tennis training program, three sessions per week and 90 minutes per session. They received conventional tennis instruction without a specific external or internal attentional focus cue. Instructional and technical feedback was provided after completion of each practice set.
Behavioral: Neutral Instruction · Behavioral: Delayed Summary Feedback
During the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward distal external effects of the movement, including the target location and flight trajectory of the ball. The attentional-focus instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
During the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward proximal external effects of the movement, particularly the point and moment of contact between the racket and the ball. The attentional-focus instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
During the standardized 12-week tennis training program, participants were instructed to direct their attention toward their own body movements, technical movement patterns, and force-production sequence during tennis skill performance. These instructions were incorporated into forehand, backhand, volley, and serve practice. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
Participants received conventional tennis instructional cues during the standardized 12-week training program without specific external or internal attentional-focus instructions. Training content, progression, frequency, and duration were the same as in the other attentional-focus conditions. Training was conducted three times per week, with each session lasting approximately 90 minutes.
Participants received instructional and technical feedback immediately after each tennis skill performance. The feedback was consistent with the attentional-focus condition assigned to the participant and was intended to provide prompt information for adjustment of subsequent performance.
Participants received instructional and technical feedback after completion of each practice set rather than immediately after each individual performance. Each practice set typically consisted of 10 to 15 balls. The feedback was consistent with the assigned attentional-focus condition and allowed participants time for self-perception, error recognition, and movement adjustment before receiving external feedback.
Change in Tennis Skill-Performance Attainment Score From Baseline to Week 12
Tennis skill-performance attainment was assessed for four tennis motor skills: forehand, backhand, volley, and serve. Participants completed predefined performance tasks, and their performance was evaluated according to prespecified task-specific scoring criteria. The primary outcome was the change in skill-performance attainment from baseline to the end of the 12-week intervention.
Time frame: Baseline and Week 12
Change in Tennis Technique Evaluation Score From Baseline to Week 12
Tennis technique was evaluated for forehand, backhand, volley, and serve using standardized technique-evaluation criteria. The assessment focused on movement structure, body coordination, racket and ball control, and overall technical quality. The primary outcome was the change in technique evaluation score from baseline to the end of the 12-week intervention.
Time frame: Baseline and Week 12
Tennis Skill Retention Score at Week 14
Retention of the learned tennis motor skills was assessed two weeks after completion of the 12-week intervention. Participants were evaluated on the stability of their performance in the learned tennis skills, including forehand, backhand, volley, and serve, using the predefined study assessment procedures.
Time frame: Week 14 (2 weeks after completion of the intervention)
Tennis Skill Transfer Score at Week 14
Transfer of the learned tennis motor skills was assessed two weeks after completion of the 12-week intervention. Participants were evaluated on their ability to apply the learned tennis skills under modified task conditions using the predefined study assessment procedures.
Time frame: Week 14 (2 weeks after completion of the intervention)
Plan to share: No — Individual participant data (IPD) will not be shared. Participants in this study are minors, and individual-level data are subject to the privacy and confidentiality protections specified in the ethics-approved study procedures. Study results will be reported only in aggregate form without disclosure of information that could identify individual participants.
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Ran from Sep 2024 to primary completion in Dec 2024, 3 months.
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