Adverse Effects of RBC Transfusions: A Unifying Hypothesis

Transfusion of red blood cells (RBCs) is often effective at preventing morbidity and mortality in anemic patients. In contrast, recent studies indicate that some RBC components may have functional defects ("RBC storage lesions") that actually cause morbidity and mortality when transfused. For example, patients transfused with RBCs stored >14 days have statistically worse outcomes than those receiving "fresher" RBC units. In addition to the age of stored RBCs, the volume transfused may be important. The TRICC study showed that specific patients whose transfusions were limited by a restrictive trigger (RBCs transfusions only when hemoglobin [Hb] \< 7 g/dL) had significantly better outcomes than those transfused with a more liberal trigger ([Hb] \< 10 g/dL Hb). This finding has been particularly difficult to understand since conventional wisdom suggests that an elevated [Hb] should be beneficial because it supports increased O2 delivery. Recipient-specific factors may also contribute to the occurrence of these adverse events. Unfortunately, these events have been difficult to investigate because up to now they have existed only as "statistical occurrences" of increased morbidity and mortality in large data sets. There are currently no clinical or laboratory methods to detect or study them in individual patients.

The microcirculation is composed of a continuum of small vessels including small arterioles, capillaries, and post-capillary venules. The microcirculation represents an actively-adjusting vascular circuit that matches blood flow (and O2 delivery) to local tissue oxygen demands. While the physiologic mechanisms that match O2 delivery to local requirements are incompletely understood, endothelium-derived nitric oxide (NO) clearly plays an important role. Interestingly, recent work has revealed that in addition to transporting O2 and CO2, the RBC also controls local NO concentrations and thus may also play a surprisingly important role in regulating blood flow in the microcirculation.

Herein, the investigators bring together previously unconnected data to propose a unifying hypothesis, centered on insufficient NO bioavailability (INOBA), to explain the increased morbidity and mortality observed in some patients following RBC transfusion. In this model, variables associated with RBC units (storage time; 2,3-DPG concentration) and transfusion recipients (endothelial dysfunction; hematocrit [Hct]) collectively lead to changes in NO levels in vascular beds. Under certain circumstances, these variables are "aligned" such that NO concentrations are markedly reduced, leading to vasoconstriction, decreased local blood flow and insufficient O2 delivery to end organs. Under these circumstances, the likelihood of morbidity and mortality escalates. The INOBA hypothesis is attractive because of its explanatory power and because it leads to a number of readily testable predictions, which will be investigated in the following aims:

Aim 1: To investigate the effects of blood processing and storage (using standard FDA-approved conditions) on NO production and scavenging by human RBCs/Hb in vitro. Using sensitive biochemical assays (electron spin resonance [ESR]) and a rat aortic ring in vitro bioassay, the investigators will test the effects of RBC storage time, leukoreduction, and irradiation on NO synthesis and/or scavenging by intact RBCs and free Hb. Modifications such as washing and rejuvenation will be investigated as possible approaches to correct abnormalities in NO bioavailability.

Aim 2: To transfuse healthy volunteers and investigate the effects of storage-related RBC changes on blood flow, tissue oxygenation, and biomarkers of cardiovascular function. The investigators will determine whether RBCs prepared and stored under conditions that alter NO bioavailability in vitro (Aim 1) inhibit NO-mediated vasodilation, reduce tissue perfusion, and decrease tissue O2 delivery in healthy transfusion recipients in vivo. The role of 2,3-DPG depletion as well as exercise-induced O2 demand will also be investigated with these specialized experimental systems.